How to stop bullying

One way to examine how different factors influence bullying are so-called risk and protective factors. More protective factors and fewer risk factors increases the possibilities for a safe and inclusive environment, without bullying. Risk factors increase the risk of bullying and are associated with a high prevalence of bullying. Protective factors buffer or protect against bullying and are associated with low prevalence of bullying.

It is important to emphasize that risk and protective factors should not be equated with causes. Causes means that one variable is affecting the other. In this context risk factors refer to factors or characteristics that statistically increase the likelihood of being a perpetrator or being victimized, and protective factors refers to factors or characteristics associated with a lower likelihood of negative outcomes or that reduce the impact of a risk factor. The knowledge of these factors is not only important in order to understand the phenomenon of bullying, but also to systematize this knowledge in order to identify and design interventions to prevent and remedy bullying.

The social ecological model highlights that bullying is not just a result of individual behavior, but is also shaped by the relationships, communities, and broader cultural and societal factors in which individuals exist.
In order to systematize the findings a social ecological framework have been used where different risk and protection factors are presented in relation to different levels of the social ecological model, i.e., the micro-, meso-, exo-, macro-, and chronosystem levels.

The chronosystem covers time and all experiences that a person has endured throughout their lifetime, such as major life transitions, historical events, and puberty.

The macrosystem covers the cultural and societal elements that influence the individual, such as cultural ideas and customs, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, the school system, and geographical location.

The exosystem relates to formal and informal social structures that indirectly may influence the individual, such as the neighborhood, parent´s workplace and parent´s friends or mass media.

The mesosystem consists of the interactions between two or more microsystems such as the home and the school, i.e., the relationships that surrounds and affect the individual directly.

The microsystem consists of the immediate and explicit relationships that bi-directional influences the individual, since it encompasses the settings in which individuals has all their day-to-day experiences.

We will use the social ecological model to describe the risk and protective factors related to school bullying.

The research on risk and protective factors related to the chronosystem level is limited. The risk factors identified relates to major life transitions or changes in the life course.

The research on risk and protective factors related to the chronosystem level is limited. However, some risk factors have been identified, such as changes in the family structure (e.g., divorce or remarried parents) and prior bullying perpetration and victimization.

Changes in the parent-child interactions may affect the child during early childhood and adolescent in a negative way and result in negative outcomes, such as conduct problem, externalizing and internalizing problems. Based on this, consistency over the life course, in terms of a persistent family structure, could be considered a protective factor.

Prior participation in bullying situations, as a perpetrator or as a victim increased the likelihood of bullying someone later. Research also shows that victimization at one time point is predictive of victimization at the following time point.

Other risk and protective factors that relates to the chronosystem-level in terms of change is age, and especially the transitions between childhood and adolescence (puberty). The results concerning age as a risk factor for bullying perpetration are consistent with the existence of a curvilinear relationship. The probability of being a bully perpetrator increases from grade to grade until about age 14 years, when it decreases. Early adolescence is a critical period in the exploration of new social roles and the pursuit of status within the peer group which can motivate (increase the risk of) bullying during the transition from elementary to middle school.

The research on risk and protective factors related to the macrosystem level is also limited and somewhat inconsistent, but some risk and protective factors have been identified, such as cultural ideas and customs, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity.

Studies suggest that certain attitudes can be risk factors for bullying perpetration, such as tolerance towards anti-social and aggressive behaviors, competitive attitudes driven by a desire for social success, sexist attitudes, and negative attitudes towards homosexuals. However, positive attitudes towards sexual minorities can serve as protective factors against bullying perpetration.

Inequality of family income is identified as a risk factor for both bullying perpetration and victimization. The greater the degree of income inequality, the higher the likelihood of being involved in bullying as either a bully or a victim.

Certain ethnic, racial, or cultural minority groups, as well as immigrants, are more likely to be bullies than the majority group in some cases. However, there are also ethnic minority groups that have a lower probability of being bullies. Similar patterns are observed in bullying victimization, where the probability of being victimized may vary among different ethnic groups and immigrant status can be a significant predictor. The results vary from different parts of the world, and also depending on age: ethnic diversity has a protective role for victimization in America at the same time as ethnic diversity may constitute a risk factor in Europe, where the focus is on immigrant backgrounds. For bullying victimization, ethnic diversity represents a risk factor at younger ages and turns into a more protective factor in secondary schools.

The identified risk and protective factors related to the exosystem-level is very limited. The research highlights unsafe neighborhoods as a risk factor.

Students residing in unsafe neighborhoods are likely to experience bullying victimization, as well as bullying perpetration.

The complex relation between different risk and protective factors at the chrono-, macro- and exosystem levels shows how closely intertwined they are and how they can strengthen or counteract each other. A good example can be found in a study on how socioeconomic status of school neighborhoods is associated to bullying behavior. The result shows that all indicators of low family socioeconomic status and poor school neighborhood socioeconomic status were associated with an increased risk of being a bully or bully-victim, at the same time as parental educational level was the only indicator of socioeconomic status related with bullying victimization.

The risk and protective factors identified on the mesosystem level mainly refers to the school system, the school climate, i.e., the relationships that surrounds and affect the individual directly.

The mesosystem level includes the relationships that surround and affect the individual directly, with the school climate being a crucial factor. This includes interpersonal relationships, perceptions or feelings toward school, and organizational characteristics of the school.

Research studies have shown that a positive school climate is related to a decrease in school violence, while a negative school climate is a risk factor for bullying victimization and being a bully/victim. However, the strength of the correlation varies considerably.

Positive student-teacher relationships and student participation in decision making are also associated with less victimization. Regarding perceptions or feelings toward school, satisfaction with the school, sense of belonging, school attachment, and school connectedness are all protective factors against bullying perpetration.

When it comes to security and rules studies shows that the presence of established clear, consistent, and fair rules and accepted regulations against bullying, anti-bullying and pro-victim attitudes, as well as the ability to intervene against violence reduced the incidence of bullying perpetration and bullying victimization.

Students in schools without anti-bullying norms, with inferior teacher support, and with poor class management were at increased risk of bullying perpetration. Student’s perception of safety, a positive climate of coexistence and that the teachers promote mutual respect reduces the risk of bully perpetration.

It is important for teachers and other school practitioners to promote positive teacher-student relationships and minimize negative relationships and a negative school climate in order to counteract bullying behavior.

We can conclude that the school climate, which includes interpersonal relationships, perceptions or feelings toward school, and organizational characteristics of the school, is an important factor in predicting bullying perpetration and victimization.

The risk and protective factors identified on the microsystem level mainly refers to the immediate and explicit relationships that bi-directional influences the individual, in relation to relationships within the family, the school and in relation to peers.

Family relationships

Family-related factors, specifically parenting behavior and characteristics are important risk and protective factors associated with bullying perpetration and victimization.

Negative parenting behavior, including abuse, neglect, and maladaptive parenting, is associated with an increased risk of becoming a bully/victim and experiencing victimization. Positive parenting behavior, such as authoritative parenting, good communication, warm and affectionate relationships, parental involvement, and support, have protective effects against bullying perpetration and victimization. Effective parent-child communication, meeting children’s friends, and encouraging academic achievement are protective factors associated with lower bullying perpetration.

Family rules, parents’ interest in children’s schoolwork, parental emotional support, positive family environments, and values transmitted by parents are protective factors against bullying perpetration. On the other hand, scarce parental emotional support, abusive or unsupportive home environments, family conflicts, inter-parental/family violence, and negative attitudes and values are risk factors for bullying perpetration and victimization. Also, alcohol and drug use among family members, as well as parents’ mental health issues, are highlighted as risk factors for bullying perpetration.

School relationships

In school, low levels of adult monitoring can increase the frequency of bullying and reduce the likelihood of students feeling safe. It is more likely that aggressive behavior will increase if teachers do not intervene, ignore, or trivialize bullying.

The character of the teacher-student relationship can constitute a risk or protective factor for bullying perpetration and victimization. A negative teacher-student relationship characterized by disruptive and aggressive behavior can be a risk factor for both bullying perpetration and victimization. On the other hand, positive teacher-student relationships characterized by teacher support, good personal treatment, teachers promoting mutual respect, and a positive climate of coexistence can be protective factors for both bullying perpetration and victimization.

Support, good, fair, and just treatment are important for students, as well as the existence of clear and fair rules that are applied justly. The more students feel justly treated by their teachers, the less likely they are to self-report bullying behavior.

In conclusion, the quality of the teacher-student relationship and contextual and situational factors such as class climate, school liking, and bullying characteristics are associated with the likelihood that bullying and victimization can occur. By creating a democratic disciplinary style that encourages teachers to behave authoritatively, the risk of bullying can be decreased.

Peer relationships

There are various risk and protective factors related to peer relationships in the context of bullying perpetration and victimization.

Bystander behavior and social support: The relationship with classmates and their attitudes toward bullying can be risk factors for bullying perpetration. Having social and emotional support from classmates who endorse bullying or fear victimization can contribute to bullying behaviors.

Social status and friendship: Peer status, social acceptance, and the number of friends play a significant role. Higher peer status and having more friends are associated with increased odds of bullying perpetration. However, having high-quality friendships and positive influence can also be protective against victimization.

Classroom environment: The overall behavior and attitudes in the classroom have a stronger influence on individual bullying involvement than individual attitudes alone. If bullying behavior goes unpunished or even leads to increased social status, it can perpetuate permissive attitudes toward bullying among classmates.

Social isolation: Social isolation, indicated by the absence of a best friend, is a risk factor for bullying victimization. Early adolescents without a best friend are more likely to experience an increase in victimization. Having few friends, on the other hand, can protect against offending and cybervictimization.

Friendship quality: High friendship quality can be associated with both bullying victimization and perpetration. Some victimized individuals may use their high-quality friendships to plan retaliatory behavior, while maintaining quality friendships can act as a protective factor against victimization.

Overall, the research emphasizes the multifaceted nature of peer relationships and their impact on bullying perpetration and victimization. Factors such as attitudes, social support, social status, friendship quality, and social isolation all play a role in shaping individuals’ involvement in bullying behaviors.

Individual factors

Individual and socio-demographic characteristics can also be risk and protective factors for bullying perpetration and victimization.

Sex/Gender/Sexuality: Boys are consistently found to have a higher likelihood of being bullies compared to girls. However, one study found a higher probability of girls engaging in “indirect bullying.” Sexual orientation can also be a risk factor for bullying victimization, with negative attitudes towards homosexuals playing a role.

Physical characteristics: Body Mass Index (BMI) and obesity have been identified as risk factors for both bullying perpetration and victimization. The stigma and rejection associated with physical appearance can contribute to these associations. However, research on the relationship between weight and bullying is mixed, with different findings for different genders. Physical strength can potentially serve as a protective factor against peer victimization in the absence of friends. It highlights the interaction between physical characteristics and peer relationships in the context of bullying.

Motricity: Good motor skills have been found to predict bullying perpetration, while poor motor skills are associated with bullying victimization. This may be due to the influence of competence, social feedback, and physical means for aggression.

Externalizing problems: Externalizing problems such as impulsivity, hyperactivity, lack of empathy, sensation seeking, aggressiveness, antisocial behavior, and conduct problems are consistently identified as risk factors for bullying perpetration. Bullies tend to have conflicts and worse relationships with peers.

Internalizing problems: Internalizing problems, including helplessness, insecurity, low mood, nervousness, insomnia, depressive symptoms, lack of empathy, and suicidal ideation, correlate negatively with bullying perpetration and positively with bullying victimization. Anxiety is more likely among victims. Internalizing problems can be both antecedents and consequences of peer victimization.

Protective factors for bullying perpetration and victimization include good school performance, social skills, self- and other-related cognitions and competencies.

Overall, understanding bullying through the social ecological model allows for a comprehensive examination of the multiple levels of influence and their interplay in shaping the occurrence, persistence, and prevention of bullying behavior. It emphasizes the importance of addressing bullying not only at the individual level but also through interventions and strategies that target the social systems and contexts in which bullying occurs. By working together to increase protective factors and minimize risk factors, we have a good chance of ending bullying.